Over the past century, archaeology has provided many exciting opportunities for the application of ideas from the more traditional sciences, but it has also always presented new frontiers of its own which have led to highly original, and specifically archaeological, scientific research. Funds are available for science-based archaeology from a number of sources, including the Natural and Environmental Research Council and The British Academy. Modern science-based archaeology can be divided into seven major areas:
A whole range of physical, chemical, biological and geological phenomena can be used as an aid to dating in archaeology. Radiocarbon was the first, and is still the best known, of the dating techniques which are based upon nuclear physics. Since the 1960s it has revolutionised the study of prehistory and has become a routine procedure in archaeology, with several radiocarbon laboratories in Britain. The latest development in radiocarbon, Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, has required much new research in pure chemistry and physics, and has led to the establishment of a major facility at the University of Oxford. AMS allows the dating of much smaller samples of material, making it possible to date a wider range of objects. Other dating innovations have involved the development of tree ring chronologies that can be applied across large areas of Europe (dendrochronology), based upon the matching of tree ring sequences in ancient timbers preserved in peatbogs and buildings. These chronologies can be used as a check on other dating methods, and Queen's University, Belfast has taken the lead in an international programme of high precision tree ring calibration of the radiocarbon period.
Archaeology sites often yield up a larger tonnage of the remains of plants and animals than they do of pots, coins, stone tools and all the other artefacts that might more usually be associated with archaeology. The study of all this material - bones, teeth, wood, charcoal, seeds and grain, insect skeletons, pollen and so on - now involves a considerable number of scientists. The remains must be extracted, sorted and identified, and a whole range of further studies can be carried out. Current research includes the reconstructions of past natural environments, assessment of the environmental impact of past human communities, studies of the physiology of plants and animals based upon the microscopy and biochemistry of their preserved tissues. It has recently proved possible to extract and sequence DNA from ancient remains, and this opens up yet another field of exciting possibilities. The discovery of exceptionally well preserved human bodies such as Lindow Man and the `iceman' from the Alps leads to the establishment of large teams of collaborators, from forensic scientists to pathologists and anthropologists.
Modern archaeology not only examines the form and decoration of a piece of pottery, a stone tool or an item of metalwork, it also looks at how it was made, what it was made of and where the materials might have come from, as well as how it was used. In some cases, geological and chemical analysis of materials has allowed precise sources to be identified - Neolithic stone axes in Britain or volcanic glass artefacts in the Mediterranean for example - and the distances over which these objects were traded bring to light a whole network of social interaction that would otherwise be unknown. Metallurgical studies make it possible to unravel the techniques used in manufacture, the technology that was available, the sequence of processes and the precise mixtures of metals included in alloys. The edges of stone tools can be examined for traces of wear on their edges which can help us to understand the function of the tool.
The work of a conservator can be thought of as the micro-excavation of an object from an archaeological site, exploring its structure and often revealing new and exciting information about it. At the same time, conservators aim to preserve objects for future study and museum display. Effective conservation relies upon a close combination of theory and practical skills. The theory is based on the structure and properties of materials, and the way in which they interact with their environment, together with a knowledge of ancient technology.
Whilst many archaeological sites are still found by accident, the largest number of new sites comes these days from the careful examination of aerial photographs. Plotting and analysing such photographs is an important area of activity and a whole new range of computer-based analytical techniques is starting to be applied. Once the sites have been discovered, then a great deal may be discovered about them even before excavation, using a variety of geophysical and geochemical techniques. These techniques, originating mostly in the oil and mineral prospection industry, have needed special adaptation for archaeology, but are now very widely used.
All archaeological sites are built up from the accumulation of sediments. These may be naturally deposited or a deliberate part of the site structure. They may result from the decay of buildings or the development of soils and vegetation over parts of the site. Using the techniques of geology and soil science, study of these sediments form a vital part of the unravelling of a site's history. During the 1960s, the British Association for the Advancement of Science initiated two experiments, each designed to last for 128 years, to monitor the geomorphological changes which take place in earthworks over time. Thirty years later these experiments are still going strong.
Statistics has long been associated with archaeology. Several of the standard statistical techniques, for example, were first tested on measurements of ancient Egyptian skulls. Now sophisticated numerical methods can be used in the study of all aspects of the past, from geophysics to the classification of pottery. Computers were first used as an aid to statisticians but now they are widely applied on site as well as in the laboratory and office. Computers are routinely used for recording and storing archaeological data, and their graphical capabilities are increasingly used, for example in presenting the distributions of sites and artefacts or creating reconstructions of excavated buildings.
A number of university departments have been designated as archaeological science research centres, with special funding arrangements. These include: Bradford, Cambridge, Durham, Liverpool, Oxford, Sheffield and University College London but, although these have been officially endorsed, it should be said that internationally recognised work in archaeological science is also carried out in many other university departments.
People working in archaeological science come from a whole range of different backgrounds. Many come from the traditional sciences physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics and geology but increasingly, students are graduating with BSc degrees in archaeology. Most archaeology degrees involve a proportion of archaeological science. However, there are courses specifically designated as a BSc. These are of three types:
The BSc label is not an infallible guide to the true nature of a course and some BA archaeology degrees have a considerable amount of science in them. Different universities have different specialities and it is important to ask them for their detailed literature in order to see precisely what courses are available. Most archaeology BSc degrees require at least some previous science qualifications (A and AS levels, Access courses, Open University credits and the like) and the archaeological conservation BSc courses specifically ask for chemistry A or AS level. A brief summary of all British university archaeology departments, with addresses and points of contact, is given in the Council for British Archaeology's factsheet Archaeology in Higher Education.
Another approach to archaeological science is through a previous degree level training in one of the other sciences, followed by postgraduate training in archaeology. There are two types of formally taught MSc course:
There are also Masters degrees in archaeological computing or information systems at Birmingham, Southampton and York.
Again, it is very important to check what specialities in archaeological science are taught at different universities, and the degree of specialisation that is available. It is well worth making an appointment to visit the department and talk to some of the specialists in your field of interest.
Archaeology is still a small and competitive subject and, in general, it must be said that following an archaeological career requires not only flair but also luck and a good deal of determination. Archaeological science, however, is seen as a specialist area, for which there are fewer potential researchers each of whom is therefore funded at a slightly higher than usual level to reflect the higher cost of laboratory provision. Good graduates who undertake further archaeological science training still have an above average (for the archaeological community as a whole) chance of employment.
Trained archaeological conservators, in particular, have good employment opportunities. Specialist training for a career as a professional conservator involves extensive laboratory and field work to develop the practical skills and experience required. Most conservators are employed in museums, carrying out a wide range of work related to all aspects of museum activities and the welfare of their collections.
For other branches of archaeological science some opportunities exist in specialist research laboratories such as those of the British Museum, and in laboratories such as those of English Heritage and some of the larger excavation units. Research carried out in universities requires rather fewer people, but this is another source of work. Yet other archaeological scientists work freelance on a contract basis. Science-trained archaeologists also find employment in the field on excavations and surveys, where their skills are of use in surveying, geophysical prospection, sampling of biological remains and statistical analysis of results.
Ever increasing numbers of archaeologists (both BA and BSc) are graduating each year and nowadays the majority do not follow a career in the subject. But archaeology graduates do have a very good record of alternative employment, especially in industry and commerce. The combination of arts and sciences, the applied nature of the science and the teamwork involved in field projects are all seen by employers as useful training for a wide variety of careers.
Points of contact (remember to enclose a stamped addressed envelope):
Council for British Archaeology
St.Mary's House,
66 Bootham,
York,
YO30 7BZ
web: http://www.britarch.ac.uk
Association for Environmental Archaeology
Membership Secretary
c/o Department of Archaeological Science
University of Bradford
Richmond Road
BRADFORD
BD7 1DP
web: http://www.envarch.net
Institute of Field Archaeologists
University of Reading
2 Earley Gate
READING
RG6 6AU
web: http://www.archaeologists.net
United Kingdom Institute for Conservation
109 The Chandlery
50 Westminster Bridge Road
LONDON
SE1 7QY
web: http://www.ukic.org.uk
Factsheet content last revised January 2001
This site will look best in a browser that supports web standards, but is accessible to any browser or Internet device. Further information
TORC is a service of the Archaeology Training Forum, operated by the Council for British Archaeology and supported by English Heritage. Further information
Today's date: 4/7/2009
This page last updated:
3/4/2007 10:58
